Roses
The rose species and botanical varieties are not appreciated in America nearly so much as they are in Europe. Only about 50 are offered by a very few U.S. nurseries, though nearly 150 are offered by European nurseries. Approximately 50 million rose bushes are sold in the U.S. annually, but very few of these are the species√ɬ¢√¢‚Äö¬¨√¢‚Ǩ¬ùmost are the “modern” rose hybrids.
It is known that roses, in some form or other,have been on the North American continent for 32 million years√ɬ¢√¢‚Äö¬¨√¢‚Ǩ¬ùtruly a long time and un-doubtedly much mutation and segregation has occurred during that period. It is of interest to note that the majority of “modern” roses that are popular in American gardens are chiefly derived from 2 or more of the following species: R. chinensis, R. damascene, R. foetida, R.moschata, R. multiflora, R. odorata, R. rugosaand R. wichuraiana. These are all Asiatic in origin, showing that American and Europeanspecies have contributed little. However, manyof these species are themselves of value forcertain distinctive uses in the garden, even though they rarely bloom more than once a season.
Many of the rose species are far more hardy than the hybrids so commonly grown. Garden-ers who use in the northern U.S. and Canada might do well to remember this, for it means less need for winter protection. Also, the species are less susceptible to insect and disease troubles, which means less dusting, sprayingand pruning. It is such plants which take lesscare that should be grown more in order to takea good deal of the drudgery out of garden maintenance.
Some of the rose species are valuable in the landscape because they can be appreciated formore than one season of the year. The Virginia Rose, for instance, is of interest during every season of the year. In late spring and early summer the light pink flowers appear; all through the summer it has shining green leaves;in the fall it has red fruits and a beautiful orange autumn color, and in the winter the red twigs and fruits remain to give bright color all season long. Such plants as these, which have interest for more than one season, should be grown more, regardless of whether they are roses or dog woods. All roses have alternate, innately compound leaves and most species have thorns.The petals are pleasant to nibble and sometimes they are prepared as a salad, or are candied.The pulpy fruits of a few species have been used for making jellies rich in Vitamin C.
Propagation. There are so many rose species that it is reasonable to expect a wide variation in the germination of seeds of the different species. In general, however, seeds might well be stratified for 3 months at do. F. and then sown. If they fail to germinate after a period of 3 months,give them another 3-month cold treatment.Roses are budded or grafted, but of the roses grown commercially, the greater propor-tion are budded. R. multiflora is usually used as under stock for outdoor types and R. noise.-arta `Manettii’ is often used for green houseplants. Many can be rooted by softwood orhardwood cuttings and, for the home gardener,this certainly is the easiest method.
x alba 6′ Zone 4 Cottage Rose
With white or blush-pink fragrant flowers, moreor less double, 2-3 in. across and red fruits inthe fall. The plant is a hybrid (R. corymbifera xR. gallica), but its variety `Incarnate’ is better than the species. This blooms in mid-June whenall the pink- and red-flowering roses are at their height of bloom, and the orange to scarlet fruits, in. long, are very effective from Aug.to Nov.
amblyotis 5′ Zone 2 Kamchatka Rose
The flowers are red, single and 2 in. across,native to Kamchatka. It is recommended especially for gardens in the colder parts of the country where many of the other roses will not survive the winter. There are only 3 other wild roses in this list which have proved hardy inZone 2. These are R. blanda, R. rubrifolia andR. rugosa.
arkansana sf’ Zone 4 Arkansas Rose
Native to Ark., this small rose with pale single,pink flowers, fl in. wide, blooms in June andJuly. It is an excellent native rock garden plant.x arnoldiana 5′ Zone 4 Arnold RoseA semi-double red rose of vivid coloring, theflowers are 2 in. across and sitnilar to those ofR. rugosa, but of a much more vivid shade. Itis a hybrid of R. rugosa x R.
borboniana.banksiae ifi’ (by climbing) Zone 7 Banks
RoseThe flowers of this beautiful, tender, Chineserose are white to yellow, about t in. wide, andare slightly fragrant. The plant is an indifferentclimber. Some excellent varieties have beennamed, such as ‘Alba-plena’, with double white,very fragrant flowers; ‘Lot.% with doubleyellow, scentless flowers and `Lutescens’, withsingle yellow flowers.
blanda 6′ Zone 2 Meadow Rose
Few roses withstand the cold climate of thenorthern U.S. and Canada as does this nativeand so it is listed here. With single pink flowersup to 2+ in. across, there is nothing truly out-standing about it except that it is one of the 4species in this list withstanding Zone 2 growingconditions.
califorMca 9′ Zone 5 California Rose
A native rose of the West Coast, this has somemerit in the area about its native habitat. Thesingle pink flowers, about 1+ in. across, areborne in clusters of a dozen or more.
canina 9′ Zone 3 Dog Rose
A rose with single, white to pink flowers, up to2 in. across, and bright scarlet fruits, in. long,but otherwise of little ornamental value, itgrows vigorously and is often used as stock forbudding. Native to Europe, it is widespreadthere and is said to be naturalized in certainplaces in the U.S. In Europe several varietieshave been named, but as yet they have notproved to be of much value in America.
carolina 3′ Zone 4 Carolina Rose
Since this rose with single red flowers andeffectively colored red fruits is native to a largepart of the eastern U.S., it is included in thislist. It increases by underground stems and isgood for bordering the edges of thickets. Thefoliage is not so glossy as that of R. nirginiana.The variety alba has white Rot-cot-s.
centifolia 6′ Zone 5 Cabbage Rose
The “Rose of a Hundred Petals” from the EastCaucasus has been popular in America sincecolonial times and in Europe for centuriesbefore that. It is being grown for its many varieties and for its historical significance. Thepink flowers of the species are 24 in. across andare very double and very fragrant. The Dutchpainters often used it as a subject for theircanvasses. The variety `Muscosa’ has doublerose flowers, the sepals and pedicels beingcovered with a mosslike growth, giving site tothe common name “Moss” Rose. This isanother of the old-fashioned varieties whichhave been popular for centuries and which havemany descendants.
chinensis 3′ Zone 7 China Rose
Native to China, upright in habit, with single,crimson to pink to white flowers, about 2 in.across. It is not a good ornamental type itself,but has been used as one of the parents of manyof the horticultural varieties used today. Thevariety ‘Minima’ (R. wider.) is not over to in.tall, with single or double, red, pink or almostwhite flowers t in. across and, with R. multi-flora, is the forerunner of our popular diminu-tive “Baby Ramblers” of today. The varietysemperflorens, the Crimson China Rose, hasleaflets stained with purple and flowers eithercrimson or deep pink, blooming until fall.damascena 6′ Zone 4 Damask RoseThe Damask Rose from Asia Minor has largeclusters of pale pink to red flowers that are2+-3-4 in. wide and very fragrant. This is therose that early European hybridists started withand crossed in so many ways, and it wasprobably grown in England by the earlyRomans. From an historic standpoint alone,this is a most interesting rose to have in thegarden. The variety Wersicolor’ is the historicYork and Lancaster Rose, with partially doubleflowers that are white striped and blotched withpink. Some flowers on the plant may be mostlypink, some mostly white, while others may beboth pink and white; `Trigintipetala’ has semi-double red flowers and is one of the mostimportant roses from which “set-at-of roses” isextracted in European countries.
dumalis froebelii 9′ Zone 4 Froebel Rose
The creamy-white flowers, in. across, aresingle, but the red fruits are very effective in theearly fall. One of its distinct advantages is thatthe floWers are always profusely produced. Thisis native to Europe and western Asia.eglanteria 6′ Z011e 4 Sweet BrierSometimes a single pink rose is of value andthis one from Europe might be one because ofits beautiful orange to scarlet fruits in the fall.In Europe it is found chiefly in hedgerows, bothclipped and unclipped, with R. canina, becauseit has a very dense habit of growth. The foliageis sweet-scented, another factor adding to itspopularity, especially in England. The variety’Duplex’ has double pink flowers.
foetida9′Zone 4Austrian Brier
The deep yellow, single flowers, 2-3 in. across,have an unpleasant odor (hence the name), butat a distance they are attractive. It has been apopular favorite in gardens for 3 to 4 centuriesand is native to western Asia. The varieties ofthis species are especially popular: .Bicolor’,with single, coppery-red flowers, is the popularAustrian Copper Brier. There is no other rosein this group of “wild” roses of the world withsuch a vivid, coppery tone. Not a strong grower,it is nevertheless frequently used for its bloomin the garden; Persiana’, popularly called thePersian Yellow Rose, has double flowersslightly smaller than those of the Austrian Brier,but the abundance of yellow petals make up fortheir lack in size.
gallica 4′ Zone 5 French Rose
Cultivated in Europe for centuries and nativeto southern Europe and western Asia thissingle-flowered, brick-red rose is one of the halfdozen lowest in habit of these species roses andhas been used in hybridizing for centuries, thehybrid perpetuals being descended from it. Theflowers are up to 2,1 in. across. There is a variety`Versicolor’ with semi-double flowers that arestriped white and red which is sometimesmistaken for the true York and Lancaster Rose,and `Officinalis’, the Apothecary Rose orDouble French Rose, has double pink to redflowers and is also in the group of “old-fashioned” favorites of past centuries.
to harisonii 6′ Zone 4 Harison’s Yellow RoseThe prominent, double, yellow flowers are a in.in dia., and the shrub has been a garden favoritein America and elsewhere since 183o when itoriginated in N.Y. as a hybrid.(R. foetida x R.spinosissima). Harison’s Yellow Rose is reallynot one of the wild roses of the world since itoriginated in cultivation, but it is used generallywith the other species roses and so is consideredas a valued addition to this group. The fruit isnearly black and is not ornamental.
helenae t5′ Zone 5 Helen Rose
The white flowers of this rose from centralChina are slightly larger than those of R.multiflora and are produced in profuse clusters.It may need as much as t, ft. in which to growand it will produce a dense mass of stems, so itis definitely not arose for the small garden. Thefruit is a dull orange.
hugonis 7′ Zone 5 Father Hugo Rose
Yellow roses are none too numerous among thespecies, but this one from central China iscertainly one of the best, with single, canary-yellow flowers, 2 in. across. It blooms in lateMay, together with the other early-floweringyellow roses such as R. prhnula, R. ecae andR. xanthina. The fruits are dark scarlet toblackish red.
laevigata15′Zone 7Cherokee Rose
All who are familiar with fragrant plants of theSouth are well acquainted with this white-flowered, fragrant rose, native to China. Theplant, with single flowers often 3 in. across, hasproved so popular and so well adapted tosouthern U.S. that it has become naturalized inmany places from Ga. to Tex.
x Pheritieran. 12 Zone 4 Boursault Rose
The flowers are double to semi-double and lightto dark purple. It is an interesting hybrid (R.pendulina x R. chinensis), but not one for thesmall garden.
x ‘Max Graf’ 3′-4′ Zone 5
This is probably a R. rugosa x R. wichuraianahybrid originating in 1919, and it is attractiveall season with profuse single, bright pinkflowers, somewhat like those of R. rugosa insize and shape, and glossy foliage. Thoughslightly bushy, it is also trailing in habit andyears ago was a popular ground cover.
moschata nastarana 6′ Zone 6 Persian
Musk RoseHardier and with a sturdier habit of growththan the species, this Persian Musk Rose hassingle flowers over a in. in dia. The shrub itselfgrows or almost climbs vigorously and thisvariety is mentioned here in preference to thespecies merely because it is hardier and morevigorous, with larger and more profuse flowers.moyesii 9′ Zone Moses RoseA native to western China, this rose has blood-red single flowers, 21 in. across, during mid June. The flowers are small when comparedwith some of those of the hybrids, but the coloris unique. The deep orange-red fruits are 21- in.long. Since the species varies considerably whengrown from seed, it might be wise to propagateasexually from one of several named seedlingsavailable. ‘Geranium’ is one of the bettercultivars available, for this has excellent blood.sod flowers.
multiflora 10′ Zone 5 Japanese Rose
Unfortunately this rose from Japan is beingoverplanted in America today and can wellbecome one of our most vicious, woody weeds.Being a rank grower, it is definitely not a hedgeplant for the small place. In the northern partsof this country, although the canes may grow10 ft. or more, the plant may be severelyinjured by winter cold, and unless considerableeffort is spent on time-consuming pruning, itcan become unsightly. As an understock onwhich to graft other roses, it has advantages.Even as a single shrub it has merit, but whenused in large nuinbers, it may prove trouble-some. Its dense, arching habit of growth,myriads of small white flowers during mid-Juneand small, bright red fruits about in. in dia.,often remaining effective all winter, are thechief ornamental characters, good in themselves, certainly, but nurserymen can grow theplant so easily and quickly in many areas ofthis country that they have overemphasizedthese good characteristics. Though not wellsuited to the small garden, this rose might wellbe used where plenty of space is available. It isone of the parents of the modern rambler rose.Some varieties arc: eathayensis, similar to thespecies but with pale pink flowers; `Inermis’,without thorns. An excellent plant to use asundcrstock for it makes the budding operationmuch easier; `Platyphylla’, with double, deeppink flowers, this is called the Seven SistersRose, the name arising from the fact thatfrequently with 7 flowers in a cluster, the shadeof each flower may vary slightly from the others.It does not make a sturdy bush and dies outrather easily.
nitida 2′ Zone 3 Shining Rose
Although of the wild roses this is about thesmallest in stature, the single rosy-red flowersare 2 in. across. The fruit is less than 1 in. wide.Its outstanding ornamental characters are itsbrilliantly colored flowers, its small size andthe very glossy leaves which usually turn brightred in the autumn. It is found native fromNewfoundland to Conn.
odorata 15′ Zone 7 Tea Rose
The flowers of this tender rose are pink, double,and 25-3 in. wide. In the South it is either ever-green or semi-evergreen, depending upon thesituation. It has been long cultivated in thegardens of India and China, where it is native,and is considered one of the parents of the hybridtea roses. The common name comes from thefact that the flowers give off a delicious fragrance,reminding one of tea.
omeiensis 12′ Zone 6 Omei Rose
The pear-shaped red fruits on yellow fruitstalks seem to be the chief claim to fame of thissmall, single, white-flowered rose, only 1-15 in.across, together with its conspicuously large redprickles. It is native to western China. Vars.:chrysocarpa √ɬ¢√¢‚Äö¬¨√¢‚Ǩ¬ùsince there are not many yellow-fruited rose species, this might be one to use,but at present it is not available in America. Itis called the Goldfruit Omei Rose; pteracantha√ɬ¢√¢‚Äö¬¨√¢‚Ǩ¬ùa variety of the above with even larger, redprickles all along the vigorous canes. Theseremain in evidence throughout the winter. Thisplant is known as the Wingthorn Omei Rose.palustris 6′ Zone 4 Swamp RoseNative over a wide area of the eastern U.S., thishas single rose-colored flowers about 2 in.across and red fruits effective in the fall. It is notsuperior to R. virginiana in most situations, butit does grow readily in moist or wet soils.pendulina 3′ Zone 5 Alpine RoseWith single rose-colored flowers about 2 in.across, this rose from southern Europe is of interest principally because of its large, inch-long nodding, red fruits which remain on theplant late into the fall.
primula 8′ Zone 5 Primrose Rose
Light yellow, single flowers, about in.across, are profusely borne on this plant at thestart of the season. Indeed, it is the first rose tobloom in the collection of over too species andbotanical varieties growing in the Arnold Arbor-etum. A canker sometimes infests Father Hugo’sRose and then this Primrose Rose proves a likelysubstitute, for apparently it is not troubled withthe disease. The fruits are small and red and notparticularly effective, so if it is not to be plantedfor its very early yellow flowers, it might beeliminated from this list. It is native to China.x pteragonis ‘Redwing’. An ornamentallyimportant hybrid (R. omeiensis pteracantha xR. hugonis) both for the flowers, 15 in. wide anda rich yellow, and for its brilliant red thorns,especially on young shoots. These thorns areso large that they are actually a hazard in thegarden and, unless this plant can be placed outof the way of people or animals, it might best beomitted. It is doubtful whether many nursery-men will want to expose their personnel to thedangers of handling it!
x (rambler roses). See following article.roulettii = R. chinensis ‘Minima’
roxburghii 7′ Zone 5 Roxburgh Rose
The Roxburgh Rose, native to China and Japan,is a bold-growing shrub with shredding bark onolder stems which proves to be quite an orna-mental characteristic throughout the winter.Although the flowers are single, and singlyborne, they are 21 in. across, pink at the edgesfading to white in the center. The large, unusualfruits, t5-3 in. long, are red and covered withconspicuous prickles, which make them highlyornamental. The variety plena has doubleflowers, but is practically impossible to find inAmerica.
rubrifolia 6′ Zone 2 Redleaf Rose
One of the hardiest of roses, this is also valuedfor its reddish foliage which may add desirablecolor to an otherwise monotonously greenshrub border, though the few single (II in.across) red flowers are not among the best inthis group of species roses. It is native to centralEurope.
rugosa 6′ Zone 2 Rugosa Rose
The “Sea Toma10″ of Japan (also China andKorea, as well) is undoubtedly one of the mostpopular of the species roses and is especiallygood for seashore plantings where it can with-stand salt-water spray without serious injury.This is another of the hardiest of the roses andboth single and double, white- or red-floweredvarieties are available. Since the individualflowers can be as much as 31 in. in dia. and the brick-red fruits are nearly an inch in dia., thisis one of the larger flowering roses of this group.The autumn foliage is a gorgeous orange. Thereare many varieties, some being: ‘Alba’, flowerssingle and white; `Albo-plena’, flowers doubleand white; ‘Plena’, flowers double and reddish;`Rosea’, flowers single and deep pink.
setigera x5′ Zone 4 Prairie Rose
Late-blooming roses among the species are nonetoo numerous and this one from central NorthAmerica blooms in early July. It needs plentyof room to spread out, forming a thicket withshoots 12-15 ft. long. The single, rose-coloredflowers are 2 in. across, the fruit is red and theautumn color is reddish.
spinosissima 3′ Zone 4 Scotch Rose
More widely distributed over the temperateregions of the world than any other rose speciesand the only one native to Ireland, this is low,dense and moundlike in habit and bloomsprofusely. The variation in flower color anddoubleness of its varieties are among its severalassets. The flowers are single, pink, white oryellow and 1-2 in. across; the fruit is black ordark brown and is not ornamental. Some of thebetter varieties are: ‘Alba Plena’, about 3 ft.tall. One of the excellent Scotch Roses, this hasvery double white flowers about 3 in. in dia.;`Altaica’, 6 ft. tall. The creamy-white flowers ofthe Altai Scotch Rose are 3 in. in dia. and theplant is more vigorous than most Scotch roses.It is native to Siberia; `Fulgens’, 3 ft. tall. Theflowers are double, 21 in. in dia. and a brightrose color; ‘Lulea’, 3 ft. tall. The flowers of theYellow Scotch Rose are a bright buttercupyellow, 2 in. in dia., and the plant is easier togrow than R. foetida ‘Persians’; `Lutes Plena’,flowers double, mimosa yellow. All are old-fashioned favorites.
villosa (pomifera) 6′ Zone 5 Apple Rose
With single, 2-in., pink flowers; probably onlyof value for its very large red fruits which areup to I+ in. long and 1 in. wide. These fruits areamong the largest of those borne by the wildroses. It is native to Europe and western Asia.virginiana (R. lucida) 6′ Zone 3 VirginiaRoseAlthough this is a lowly native and widelydistributed in the eastern U.S., it can be used inlandscape planting and is easily kept only 3 ft.tall by proper pruning. The flowers are singleand pink, 2-3 in. wide, the fruits are bright red,in. across, and the autumn color is an excellentred and orange, while the Wigs are bright redin winter. Added to these sterling qualities isthe fact that it can spread very fast by under-ground stems. In fact, it can be cut to theground in the early spring and may be expectedto grow 3 ft. tall and even bloom a little thatsame year. A double-flowered variety has been named ‘Plena’, but it is not commonly grown,nor is it easily available. Another, lamprophylla,is an excellent variety of the Virginia Rose, only3 ft. tall and with glossy leaves, both of whichcharacteristics make it a good landscape speci-men. It is called the Glossy Virginia Rose.
wichuraiana procumbent Zone 5 Memorial Rose
The Memorial Rose from China, Korea andJapan was originally introduced into NorthAmerica in 1891 by the Arnold Arboretum andhas been a very popular plant for banks andslopes ever since. The small white flowers, 2 in.across, appear in the late summer, making itthe last of all the species roses to bloom. Theglossy green foliage is often semi-evergreen, andthe plant grows vigorously flat on the ground,making dense, thick mats of foliage. It is theonly species that is truly procumbent and makesan excellent ground cover, especially on banks,rooting wherever the stems touch moist ground.The fruits are reddish, but they are not parti-cularly ornamental.
xanthina 9′ Zone 5 Manchu Rose
The sulfur-yellow flowers, 14-2 in. in dia., aresemi-double; otherwise it is similar to R.hugonis. This is native to China and Korea.
Popular Hybrids
For as many years as man has enjoyedgardening, roses have maintained a prominenceunequaled by any other flower. They have, infact, existed much longer than modern recordscan substantiate. Geologists tell us that the roseis several million years old. Fossil evidence fromMont. and Ore., dating the rose back 32 millionyears, establishes its existence on earth priorto man. Furthermore, it seems to have been thefirst cultivated flower.
Although the rose has been used extensively,inspiring art, poetry, music, literature andfashion, its established dignity in all culturalfields has never been lost. Throughout history,and today more than ever, it merits the title”the Queen of Flowers” originally bestowed onit by the Greek poetess Sappho.
One might reasonably assume that aside froman inherent symbolism the popularity of rosesis due for the most part to the ease with whichthey are grown. While, in fact, good roses maybe produced with a minimal effort, there arenumerous merits contributing to this universalappeal.
Botanically classified as a shrub, roses varygreatly in plant types and habit of growth.Roses blend easily into the landscape pattern foralmost any need. Whether a border planting,ground cover, a climbing or trailing plant, apotted plant for the patio or terrace, or a miniature for the window box, there are rosesto meet the needs of every gardener.
Variety of color, flower form, fragrance, plantsize and habit, lend to the widespread appeal ofroses. With proper care, a favorite rose bushmay be expected to remain in the garden manyyears; a long and profitable return on a smallinvestment. While a vast number of roses arenow being grown throughout the world, theprevalent, but false theory that they are difficultto grow has undoubtedly limited their use inmany gardens. Although the culture of rosesmay be more specialized than some other plants,any gardener willing to adhere to a basicschedule of procedures can expect rewards thatwill greatly offset the efforts.
Selecting Roses for the Home GardenTime is well spent researching the perform-ance of any rose variety to be introduced intothe garden for the first time. Guard againstillusions from striking photographs in themany nursery catalogs available today. It iswell to see how the rose has done in nationaltests as well as in your own area. Most rosesperform equally well in all sections, but theremay be certain environmental factors toinfluence your decision. The American RoseSociety conducts an annual survey of itsmembers to determine the performance of newvarieties in each locale. Ratings based on a scaleof to points with compiled remarks are publi-shed each year in the “American Rose Annual”The Society also prints annually a leaflet called”A Guide for Buying Roses,” giving ratings andother pertinent information on all rose varietieson the American market. This guide is valuableto anyone interested in roses and may beobtained free by writing the American RoseSociety, P.O. Box 3o,000, Shreveport, La. 71130.The most dependable of the new varietiesintroduced each year are the All-AmericanRose Selection winners. Roses earning thisdistinction are identified with an AARS tag.They are designated by anon-profit organizationof commercial rose-growing firms known asAll-America Rose Selections, Inc. AARS main-tains 24 test gardens throughout the UnitedStates and the varieties designated as AARSwinners have competed and proven themselvessuperior in all sections of the country.
Once varieties have been selected for thegarden, it is important to purchase plants ofsuperior quality. It seldom pays to “bargainhunt” for roses. A slightly higher price will berepaid by plant vigor and performance. It isbetter to economize by purchasing older vari-eties that have become accepted as the “stand-bys.” These are usually less expensive than thenewer introductions yet their continuous popu-larity is proof that they are good performers. Itis usually preferable to purchase bare-root rosesas opposed to plants that have been packagedor potted. Packaged plants are fine whenpurchased from a dealer who has taken care tostore them under proper moisture and tempera-ture conditions. Potted plants are gaining inpopularity with nurseries and garden centers.It is important that containers used for pottedroses be large enough to allow freedom of rootgrowth.
Before making a selection of roses for thehome garden, one most first be familiar withthe types of classes of roses and the character-istics of each. This section will briefly definetoday’s popular types and list varieties of eachtype that have proven themselves in the gardensof prominent rosarians throughout the UnitedStates.
HYBRID TEAS. Hybrid teas are the mostpopular grouping of rose varieties grown today.For the last 5o years, hybrid teas have domi-nated the rose market in both greenhouses andgarden roses. Through cross-breeding, hybrid-izers have successfully produced a combinationof favorable characteristics seen individually inmany of the older roses. The hybrid tea class isa result of interbreeding the Tea Rose with thehybrid perpetual. They are available in almostevery desirable color, with most varietiespossessing a degree of pleasing fragrance.Hybrid tea roses are of bush form, with largeflowers borne singly or in small clusters on astem. Flowers vary from single blooms with onerow of petals to double blooms with manyrows. Generally speaking the plants are hardy,but some winter protection is needed in thecolder regions. They are not immune to disease,but with modern chemical controls prevention is relatively easy. Hybrid teas are characteristi-cally repeat bloomers and with minimum carewill provide an array of color all season.
The following varieties have earned thehighest ratings of the American RoseSociety:
1.’Peace’, yellow blend
2.’First Prize’, pink blend
3.’Tropicana’, orange-red
4.’Tiffany’, pink blend
5.’Granada’, ycllow-red blend
6.’Mister Lincoln’, dark red
7.’Century Two% medium pink
8.’Garden Party’, white
9. ‘Fragrant Cloud’, orange-redto. ‘Swarthmore’, pink blend
‘Miss All-American Beauty’, medium pink12. ‘Chicago Peace’, pink blend
t 3. ‘Chrysler Imperial’, dark red.4. ‘Confidence’, pink blend
15.’Pascali’, white
16.’Oregold’, golden yellow
17.’Perfume Delight’, medium pink
18.’Medallion’, apricot blend19. “Golden Girl’, yellow
zo. ‘Eclipse’, yellow
FLORIBUNDAS. Floribundas came into beingthrough crossing Polyantha with hybrid teavarieties. They are used extensively for decora-tive purposes in the garden. Flowers are bornein clusters of varying sizes. Most varietiesproduce well-formed flowers usually smallerthan hybrid tcas, although the trend in recentyears has been tovvard larger flowers and modernhybridizers predict for the future floribundavarieties with flower size equal to the HybridT..
Floribundas are usually low-growing, bushyplants producing a continuous mass of bloom.They are likely to be more hardy and resistant todisease than hybrid teas.
1.’Europeana’, dark red
2.’Little Darling’, yellow blend
3.’Iceberg’, white
4.’Gene Boerner’, medium pink
5.’Ivory Fashion’, white
6.’Redgold’, yellow blend
7.’Apricot Nectar’, apricot blend
8.’Angel Face’, mauve9. ‘Faberge’, pink blendto. ‘Betty Prior’, medium pink1. ‘Eutin’, dark red
12.’Circus’, yellow blend
13.’Span., orange-red
14.’Saratoga’, white
15.’Fashion’, pink blend16. ‘Sarabande’, orange-red
17.’Orangeade’, orange-red
18.’Rose Parade’, pink blend
t 9. ‘Fire King’, orange-red
GRANDIFLORAS. In recent years the grandifloraclass has developed through the continuouscrossing of hybrid teas and floribundas. TheGrandiflora is an intermediate class and insome cases closely resembles the dominantparent. A true variety produces large hybridtea-type blooms usually I to a stem, but in aclustcrlike formation. Plants tend to be asvigorous as either parent. Hardiness is aboutthe same as with hybrid teas.
1.’Queen Elizabeth’, medium pink
2.’Pink Parfait’, pink blend
3.’Camelot’, medium pink
4.’Montezuma’, orange-red
5.’Ole’, orange-red
6.’Comanche’, orange-red
7.`Aquarius’, pink blend
8.’John S. Armstrong’, dark red9. ‘Sonia’, pink blend
io. ‘Mount Shasta’, white
CLIMBING ROSES. While no rose is a trueclimber having natural means for gripping orholding onto supports, many varieties producelong shoots or canes which can be trained overfences, trellises or other structures. A rosegarden is usually incomplete without a back-ground of climbers.
Climbers have a wide variation of character-istics comprising habits of many classes. Somebloom only once in the spring, some haverecurrent bloom, while others are described aseverblooming although the bloom may besparse 00 times. There are climbers with clustersof small flowers and others with large hybridtea-type blooms; the latter known as large-flowered climbers. The large-flowered climbersare most popular today.
t. ‘Don Juan’, dark red
2.’New Dawn’, light pink
3.’Improved Blaze’, medium red
4.`Blossomtime’, medium pink
5.’Golden Showers’, medium yellow
6.’Joseph’s Coat’, red blend
7.’Rhonda’, medium pink
8.’White Dawn’, white
9.’Red Fountain’, redto. ‘Royal Sunset’, apricot blend
MINIATURE ROSES. In the past decade miniatureroses have .rood a prominent status with roselovers. The miniature description applies notonly to stature, which usually ranges in height from 3 in. to a little more than a foot, but alsoto buds, stems and foliage that are equallydwarf.
Available in a host of colors, miniatures areusually winter-hardy outdoors and may beexpected to produce continuous bloom for manyseasons. They are also grown indoors as pottedplants and may be transferred to the gardenduring the summer months.
1.’Baby Darling’s, orange-pink
2.’Beauty Secret’, medium red
3.”Chipper’, light pink
4.’Cinderella’s, white
5.’Mary Marshall’, orange-pink
6.`Pixie Rose’s, deep pink
7.’Scarlet Gem’s, orange-red
8.’Statics’, orange-red
9. ‘Toy Clown’. red blend
to. ‘Hi Ho’ (climber), deep pink
* suitable for growing in pots
SHRUB ROSES. There are a number of rosesthat do not fit well into any of the groupspreviously described. All have bushy shrublikeform although differing greatly in origin. Shrubroses are usually vigorous, hardy, resistant toinsects and diseases and well adapted for generallandscape use.
i. ‘Sea Foam’, white
2.’The Fairy’, light pink
3.’Frau Karl Druschki’, white
4.Parkdirector Riggers’, dark red
5.’Sarah Van Fleet’, medium pink
6.√ɬ¢√¢‚Äö¬¨√Ǭ¢Sparrieshoop’, light pink
7.’Harison’s Yellow’, bright yellow
8.’Paul Neyron’, medium pink
9.’Pink Grootendorst’, medium pinkto. ‘Therese Bugnet’, medium pink
TREE ROSES OR STANDARDS.
Tree roses are not a type or class, but a novelty form derivedprimarily from the bush roses and some of theclimbers. Tree roses are developed by buddinga rose variety onto a tall, sturdy trunk. Thetrunk is often budded onto another root-stock.
Arranging the Rose GardenThe variety of types and habits of rosesallows for their use to satisfy almost anylandscape need. Although cultural requirementsmay determine the location of beds, the possi-bilities are limited only by the gardener’simagination. Before laying out the rose garden,thought should be given to the specific purposeit will serve and the role that will be played bythe roses in the over-all landscape scheme.
Roses are often given a prominent location inthe garden, serving as the main attraction orfocal point. It is possible, however, to blendthem into the complete plan and use them toform a background or in some other way tocomplement other garden features.
Roses are usually more attractive whendisplayed for mass effect. A practical andstriking arrangement of exhibition or cuttingvarieties is a narrow bed with varieties groupedtogether. This allows for a massive color effectand provides room for movement in caring forthe plants. If a mixture of varieties is used in asingle bed, some consideration should be givento blending of colors. If plants of varying heightsare used together, the taller plants should beplaced in the background,
For striking garden displays nothing is moreeffective than a hedge or foundation planting offloribundas. If separate beds for hybrid teas arenot included in the garden, they may blendcomfortably into the arrangement of floribundasand provide flowers for cutting. Miniatures mayadd an interesting and colorful border forarrangements of other plantings or gardenfeatures. Tree roses are always conversationpieces in the garden and may be used to breakthe monotony of continuous lines.
Roses are equally satisfying in formal orinformal landscape schemes. There is always aplace for climbers on fences and existingstructures. Many gardeners provide structuresfor the dual purpose of displaying the climbingvarieties as well as providing background forother plantings or screening undesirable sights.An arched trellis covered with flowering climbersprovides an inviting entrance to the garden.
Culture
SITE. Roses should be planted in a locationreceiving 6-8 hours of sunlight a day. The idealsite is a southern exposure offering morningsunlight which aids in discouraging disease andlate afternoon shade which helps retain colorof the blooms and protects them from ewessiveheat during the hot summer duys. A level orslightly sloping area providing free circulationof air as well as some wind protection is mostdesirable. Roses should be planted away fromtrees and other plant materials. Even tf shadingis not a problem, competition for soil moistureand nutrients as well as exposure to insects anddiseases makes such locations uniirabie.sou_ The type of soil available for the plantingis notiusuany as vital as the care &wen the soilthat is selected. Almost any wen-drained soilthat will grow other plants will grow good roses.It is important that the soil have ample drainageto prevent the roses from standlin in water for a long period of time. Should the selec-ted site have insufficient drainage, it maybe necessary to elevate the beds or install tileto move the water away.
Since roses are likely to remain in the samelocation for many years, the soil should bethoroughly prepared before the planting isestablished. Proper preparation should be madeseveral weeks in advance of planting. The soilshould be removed to a depth of 2 ft. andorganic material thoroughly mixed with thetopsoil before it is replaced in the beds.
Roses do best in a slightly acid soil but areknown to be tolerant of some variation fromthe ideal. The pH range of soil for roses shouldbe from 5.5 to 7.o. If the soil tends to be highlysaid the condition may be improved by addingground limestone. Soils of a highly alkalinenature may often be corrected by incorporat-ing forms of sulfur. Soil conditions vary greatlyin all areas and no rose garden should bestarted without the information provided froma soil test. Testing services are available in allareas either through nurseries or garden centers,commercial laboratories, private testers, or thestate agricultural extension service or experi-ment station. Information obtained from thesoil test and the recommendations receivedshould be followed explicitly.
PLANTING. Roses planted in either the springor fall can be expected to give good results.Except in the colder regions where the groundfreezes in early Oct., fall planting provides anopportunity for an early start of growth in thespring. If roses are to be planted in the spring,they should be put in as early as possible.When plants arrive from the nursery, theyshould be put into the ground immediately. If,for some reason, planting must be delayed for ashort time or should the roses arrive in a dry,shriveled condition, they may be temporarilyburied in a loose moist soil until they can beplanted.
Although most roses are shipped properlypruned for planting, it is still wise to prune thetops back to 10-12 in., remove all dead ordamaged wood, and clip the root tips aninchor less to insure that they are alive and promoterapid new growth.
The hole for each plant should be largeenough for the roots to sit freely withoutcrowding and deep enough for proper locationof the bud union, (the point where the under-stock was budded. A good plant will require a hole atleast 12 in. deep and 18 in. across. In no caseshould the root system of the plant be crowdedinto a hole. If the roots cannot be placed intothe hole freely, the hole should be made larger.The had union is planted even with or slightly below the soil level except in extremely coldareas where it should be buried to 2 in. forprotection from severe freezes. Before settingthe plant into the hole, a cone-shaped mound ofloose topsoil should be piled at the bottom ofthe hole. The plant should then be placed ontop of the mound and the roots allowed to liefreely in a downward position. Cover the rootswith a shallow layer of loose topsoil and packto eliminate air pockets. Fill the remainder ofthe hole with loose soil, pack again, then fillwith water and allow to drain. It is also a goodpractice to build a mound of soil high enoughto cover the stems of the plant for protectionfrom wind and cold weather until growthbegins. As soon as the plant shows the firstsigns of growth, the mound must be re-moved.
MULCHING. Once spring growth has begun,the soil mound removed from around theplants, and the roses have received their firstfeeding, the beds should be covered with amulching material. A good mulch will retainmoisture, keep the soil cool in summer and helpto retain temperature balance in the winter. Itwill prevent the growth of weeds, add to theorganic content of the soil and provide anattractive setting for the plants. In addition toeliminating the hard work of controlling weedsby hand or with gardening tools, the mulch ismore desirable since manual cultivation maydamage the shallow roots of the bushes. Manydifferent materials are used for mulching (whichsee). Since there are numerous good mulches,many of them available as by-products, such ascocoa hulls, cottonseed hulls, sawdust, groundhardwood bark and ground corncobs, it is bestto select one that is easily obtainable. Mostmulches will produce the same effects providingthey allow for movement of air and moistureand do not compete for soil nutrients. Manymulches will, however, absorb nitrogen whichwill eventually need to be replaced with addi-tional fertilizer. An even covering of mulching material 2-3 in. deep is sufficient and will eventually decay and add to the humus contentof the soil.
FEEDING. There are many theories as to theproper fertilization of roses. The beginner, con-fused by numerous recommendations of com-mercial firms and amateur rosarians, is moreapt to damage his bushes by overfeeding thanby failing to provide the necessary nutrients. Ifthe soil test has indicated a good balance ofnutrients, 3 light applications of general fertilizereach season is adequate. There is no substitutefor following the manufacturer’s recommenda-tions for the proper amount of fertilizer toapply. The first feeding should be done afterthe roses have shown 2-3 in. of growth in the spring, the second immediately following theJune cycle of bloom, and the third about 6weeks later. Fertilization later in the fall shouldbe avoided as it will produce tender new growthmaking the entire plant more susceptible towinter injury. There are a number of gardenerswho rely solely on organic fertilizers and growexcellent roses. There is much to be said fororganic gardening and the best answer is acompromise using chemical fertilizers periodic-ally for immediate needs and organic fertilizerssuch as well-rotted cow manure to provide aconstant nutritive environment.
WATERING. Roses are known to be thirstyplants and when water is not provided bynature, the beds should be thoroughly soakedevery week to to days. Frequent, light wateringshould be avoided as the roots will be drawntoward the surface of the soil. A soaker-typewatering system is recommended. If an overheadsystem is used, watering should be done earlyenough in the day to allow the bushes to drybefore sundown. When plants are allowed toremain moist overnight, they are more suscept-ible to disease.
Rose Pests
The amount of discussion and publicity givento insect and disease pests of roses has shaped arelatively small problem into an untrue perspec-tive, conveying the idea that to control rosepests one must possess an extensive knowledgeand collection of chemicals, a variety ofapparatus for applying sprays and dusts, andbe willing to fight a constant battle throughoutthe growing season. Fortunately, rose growerssoon discover that these ideas are not onlyexaggerated, but for the most part are false. Inreality, pests are controlled with little difficultyand it is not uncommon for one all-purposepesticide, applied in either spray or dust form,to keep the garden free of insects anddiseases.
A preference factor exists in deciding whetherto spray or dust. Spraying is usually preferredby growers having a large number of bushes to,protect. Spraying can be depended upon to givethe best coverage of all parts of the rose bush.However, for a small number of plants a ready-mixed dust can be applied faster and withoutgoing to the trouble of mixing pesticides. Dust-ing must be done when there is little or no airmovement if ample coverage is to be obtained.Under normal conditions a regular schedule ofspraying or dusting every week or so dayswill give effective control of insects anddiseases.
The proverbial “ounce of prevention” theoryapplies to the control of all insects and diseasethat may invade the rose garden. The gardener
need only be aware of the pests to which rosesare likely susceptible and schedule a preventivecontrol program to assure immunity to thecommon rose enemies. It is true, however, thatwithout such precautions the full potential ofthe rose garden will be limited.
While numerous insects and diseases areknown to cause trouble with roses, only a feware commonly found, and control measures forthese important few will normally give protec-tion from the others. Listed below are the mostimportant diseases and insects of roses withbrief descriptions and control recommendations.Recent federal regulations controlling the dis-tribution of certain pesticides make it difficult tooffer widespread recommendations. It isadvisable to check with your agricultural ex-tension agent or local garden center to deter-mine the effective controls that are legallydistributed in your area. The user must alwaysfollow the recommendations of the manu-facturer.
Diseases and Insect Pests
atAcksPo-r–circular black areas in varyingsins on the leaf which will eventually turnyellow and drop. Preventive control is possiblewith many fungicides including Maneb, Folpet,Benlate, and Daconil.
MILDEW—a white or grayish powdery growth
causing shrivelling of leaves. Mild occurrencescontrolled with Folpet, sulfur or copper. Acti-dione PM and Benlate have proven to give bestcontrol for serious outbreaks, although thenewer Pipron is showing equal effectiveness inareas where it has been used.
CANKER (several kinds)—dark spots on thecane after which all growth above the cankerdies. Infected area should be removed. Samefungicides as are recommended for blackspot.
RUST—bright orange spots on underside of
leaves. Problem is greatest on the West Coastand is now spreading. Same fungicide recom-mendation as for blackspot.
Amos—small, soft, green or brown, suckinginsects which insert a pointed mouth part intothe tender growth of young shoots and also onflower buds. Control—Lindane, Malathion,Sevin or one of the systemics.
LEAFHOPPERS—adults are small, greenish-
white, sucking insects about in. long. In the
nymph stage they suck plant juices from theunderside of the leaves. Sevin. Malathion or asystemic.
mitrs—tiny insects feeding on tender partsof the flower causing it to turn brown aroundthe edges of the petal. Flower may ball and failto open. Heavy seasonal infestations requirefrequent applications of Cygon, Vapona or Malathion. Systemics have also been usedsuccessfully.
3ApANEsE BEETLEs—brIght metallic-greenbeetles with coppery-brown wing covers, aboutin. long. Most common in Middle Atlanticstates but spreading to other regions. Sevin isthe best insecticide for adults. When done as acommunity project grubs may be biologicallycontrolled with milky spore disease.
ROSE BUGS AND ROSE CHAFERS—best controlled
with Malathion.
SPIDER MITE—tiny red Insects that can be seen
by the naked eye when placed against a whitebackground. Damage is done by sucking juicesfrom the underside of rose leaves. Controlledwith miticides such as Kelthane, pentac,Tedion.
ROSE SLUGS OR SAWFLIES—MOSI. active in early
spring. They resemble tiny slugs in the larvalstage. Controlled with Sevin or Malathion.
Winter Protection
Roses are surprisingly hardy in the colderclimates, particularly those that go into thewinter in a strong and vigorous condition. Yet,in regions where the temperature drops to 15. F.and below some protection is needed for thebush types. The severe temperatures alonecannot be blamed for winter injury as mostdamage is a result of warm periods followed bya sudden drop in temperature. Protection shouldbe applied to help maintain a constant tem-perature. Many theories and products areapplied to the task of protecting the roses in thewinter. In recent years, there have been a num-bee of commercial products designed to giveprotection, each having some merit undercertain conditions. There is no set method thatis foolproof under all conditions. The locationand exposure of the roses are factors in deter-mining the amount of protection needed.Naturally, the average lost winter temperaturesfor the area should be considered.
While there is no one best means of protec-tion, a mound of soil covering each plant is atried and proven method practiced widely in allareas. The soil should be mounded around theplants after the first hard killing frost. Exposureof the plants to frost and moderately coldtemperatures will allow for some natural harden-ing and prevent severe shock to tender caneswhen the first cold spell arrives. The height ofthe mound will vary with the nature of thewinters and the desires of the grower. However,the amount of wood saved is directly propor-tional to the size of the mound of soil. Sincethe piled-up soil is for protective purposes only,it does not have to be the best topsoil and maybe obtained from any available source. The taskof uncovering and removing soil in the spring
may be reduced, however, if rich topsoil hasbeen used that may be left in the beds. A moundof ground corncobs, compost or other organicmaterial used for protection may also remain inthe beds when the plants are uncovered in thespring. The mounds should be removed in earlyspring before new growth begins. If left untilthe buds begin to swell, considerable damagemay be done to new growth.
Tree roses are likely to need protection in allthe northern areas. By digging out one side ofthe root system, the plant can be laid overand covered with soil. In mild areas ampleprotection may be provided by wrapping thetop and trunk with burlap or heavy paper.Climbers tend to be hardier than the bushroses and many times receive ample protectiondue to location of the supporting structure. Ifadditional protection is needed they may belaid on the ground and covered with soil.
Pruning
Pruning is important as it affects the qualityand appearance of the rose bush and the bloomsit produces. Pruning is done to shape the plant,remove dead and infected canes, and promotevigorous growth which will produce largenumbers of good quality blooms.
For modern hybrid teas, floribundas andgrandifloras, pruning is best done in earlyspring, just as the plant breaks dormancy.Rather than prune the long canes in the fallbefore the plant begins to die back, it is prefer-able to tie the canes together and stake them toprevent wind whipping. Then wait until springto see how much wood has been lost.
The first step in pruning is to remove alldiseased, dead or undesirable wood. Next, theplants should be properly shaped, providedenough healthy wood is available to allow forshaping. This will not likely be the case in thecolder northern climates.
The height to which the rose normally growsand the height desired will help determine howmuch wood to remove from the plant, althoughin the colder areas there may not be a choice asthe plant may be killed back to the ground orprotective covering. Fortunately, roses canwithstand this treatment and vigorous new caneswill come back each year.
Pruning should be done with very sharp toolsthat will give a clean, slanting cut. The woodshould be removed to I in. above an outsidebud. It is always necessary to cut back to goodhealthy wood. Many times a green cane isdeceiving as the inside tissue may be dis-colored and diseased. The cross-section of ahealthy cane shows no signs of discoloration.Clean cuts usually heal quickly and withoutdamage to the cane. A protective coating of grafting wax or a commercial wound com-pound is advisable for the larger cuts.
Climbing roses are pruned according to class.Ramblers blooming only in the spring arepruned as soon as they have flowered. The oldwood which has just flowered should be re-moved to make room for new growth which willflower the following season.
Large-flowering climbers are pruned lightly inthe spring, removing diseased and dead wood.Occasionally a few of the older canes areshortened or removed to promote new growth.Tree roses are pruned primarily for shape andbalance. Pruning is usually more severe than forother types in order to keep the top frombecoming too large and unbalanced. Weak canes,diseased and dead wood should be removed andthe strong healthy canes cut back to 8-12 in.above the union.
Pruning for rose shows–Rosarians whobecome experienced at exhibiting usually becomequite adept in pruning the canes at the besttime for producing a peak crop of blooms forthe rose show. The exact number of days forpruning for shows varies with the variety as wellas season and locality, but usually ranges from39 to 53 days. The new exhibitor should seekthe advice of one of the American Rose Society’sConsulting Rosarians or an experienced exhibi-tor in his area. With a little experimentation andrecord-keeping, an individual can determine thebee time for each variety in his own garden.
Cutting Flowers
The chores involved in growing roses shouldnot be considered alone without rememberingthe rewards to be expected. Once the gardenerhas his roses established and begins to givethem proper care, he should be prepared for”rose fever” to set in. It seldom takes more thanthe first few blooms on the dining-room table towipe out memories of any hard work thatmight have been done. After the flowering hasbegun it is not long until the rose gardenerbecomes the envy of his neighborhood. Therewill be a natural inclination to cut blooms forthe home, for the neighbors, and for everyspecial occasion. Care should be taken, how-ever, that the cutting of blooms is not soextensive as to damage the plants. First-yearplants in particular should be allowed to growand produce blooms without continuous andsevere cutting. Blooms should be removed inmoderation from healthy plants until they arewell established and producing vigorous growth.Then they can be cut in abundance withoutdamaging the bush.
Exhibiting
After attaining success in growing beautiful roses many rose growers find a new world ofchallenge and fantasy by exhibiting their bloomsin competition at rose shows. The hobby ofexhibiting roses has spread rapidly, and thereare now some 35o affiliate organizations of theAmerican Rose Society sponsoring and stagingat least one rose show each season. There arealso 18 American Rose Society district showsand z national rose shows, in which every skilland technique is employed by amateur rosegrowers in an effort to exhibit perfect specimenblooms in a natural state of beauty. To produceexhibition blooms the gardener must give theutmost care and attention to his roses throughoutthe year. The most perfect hybrid as specimenwill have a long, straight stem, lush foliagearranged to complement the bloom and abund-ant petals arranged symmetrically around ahigh center. Exhibition hybrid teas are at theirbest stage for showing when one-half or two-thirds open. The first step toward exhibitinghybrid teas is the selection of varieties havingexhibition qualities. The to exhibition-typehybrid teas to win most frequently the coveted-Queen of the Show” award in recent years are’Royal Highness’, ‘Peace’, ‘Christian Dior’,'Chrysler Imperial’, ‘Crimson Glory’, ‘Granada’,'Garden Party’, ‘Tropicana’, ‘Confidence’ and’Tiffany’. The American Rose Society rulesrequire all hybrid teas to be exhibited withoutside buds. Side buds must be removed whenthey are very young and tender. Buds allowedto grow to more than f in. not only subject therose to judging penalties, but also use up foodand nutrients that should be going into theexhibition bloom.
Other types of roses such as floribundas,polyanthus and climbers are exhibited “naturallygrown” for mass effect and are not disbudded.Grandifloras may be exhibited disbudded likethe hybrid teas or naturally grown with sidebuds. Classes for grandifloras will likely varywith different shots schedules.
The American Rose Society point scoring system for judging roses is as follows:
Color – 25
Form – 25
Substance -20
Stem and foliage asSizetoAll approved American Rose Society showsare conducted according to specified standardsand judged by ARS Accredited Judges. Similarjudging standards and shots procedures aretaught and practiced throughout the U.S.A.
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